[Regents Prep U.S. History] Cultural Life: Philosophy

The very concept of a Democracy can be traced to the city-state of Athens in ancient Greece. The Athenians practiced a form of Direct Democracy, in which all eligible citizens (land-holding men) were allowed to vote on key issues and decisions and their votes counted directly. This concept of direct democracy is reflected in the early American colonies in the New England Town-meetings of Massachusetts and other colonies, in which the male membership of a town was assembled to decide upon important issues of governance. Under the original form of the US Constitution the election of Representatives to the House of Representatives was the only implementation of direct democracy, with both the President and the Senate elected by in-direct methods. (Note: The indirect election of the President is still conducted via the Electoral College, Senators are now directly elected following the passage of the 17th amendment in 1913.)

The ancient Romans further expanded upon the concept of democracy, further contributing to its implementation in America. The main concept contributed by Rome and utilized in our system is that of Representative Democracy, in which representatives are elected by the citizenry and empowered to act on their behalf in government. America is a Republic which is in great part defined by the election of representatives, such as Representatives in the House and Senators in the Senate. Additionally, the concept of Senators (and a Senate) are directly borrowed from the Roman Senate. The earliest example of representative democracy in the early colonies was the Virginia House of Burgesses, an elected, representative body responsible for governing the colony of Virginia.

The Enlightenment
One of the strongest philosophical influences on the founding fathers and drafters of the Constitution was the Enlightenment of the 1700's. This philosophical movement sought to limit the power and influence of the church and royalty by replacing absolutism and theocracy in Europe with governments based upon reason and the will of the people. The thoughts and reasoning of the writers of the European Enlightenment can be clearly seen in the foundation of American government by the Constitution.

Writer / Works	Enlightenment Ideals Expressed	Example(s) in US Government
John Locke Two Treatises on Government (1690)	- Social Contract: This notion held that an unwritten contract or agreement existed between the people and their rulers, by which the people allowed the government to rule and in exchange the government protected the natural rights of the people. Furthermore if the government fails to protect these rights the people can replace that government with a new system. - Natural Rights: Natural rights are believed to be the rights all people are born with and that are to be protected, Locke expressed these as "life, liberty and property". - Consent of the governed: Locke reasoned that to be legitimate a government had to rule with the consent of the people to be governed.	- The American Revolution is an exercise in ending the social contract. It was reasoned by colonial thinkers such as Thomas Paine (in his influential work Common Sense) that King George III had failed to protect the rights of colonists and as such a revolution was justified. - The notion of natural rights can be directly traced to the language used in the Declaration of Independence, which contains reference to inalienable rights such as "life, liberty and the pursuit of happiness". - In American democracy the consent of the governed is expressed by voting for the politicians who wield power. This idea is also expressed by Jefferson in the Declaration of Independence.
Baron de Montesquieu The Spirit of Laws (1748)	- Separation of Powers: Montesquieu believed that governments functioned best when the powers of government were not concentrated into the hands of one person or group. This was a direct reaction to the monarchies and nobility in Europe that concentrated absolute power into the hands of only a few. - Checks and balances: The idea of separating power is further developed by not only dividing powers, but allowing the various parts of government the ability to oversee and limit the actions of the others.	- Within the US Federal Government, there are three branches each with unique powers and responsibilities, the Executive Branch (the President and the agencies of government which run government and enforce the laws), the Legislative Branch (Congress which creates law) and the Judicial Branch (Supreme Court and lower federal courts which interpret laws and actions). - Checking and balancing is a key component to the separation of powers within the US Federal Government, keeping each branch within its defined roles through oversight by the other two branches. For example, the President may veto laws passed by the US Congress, the Congress impeach the President (removal from office) and the Supreme Court can declare unconstitutional a law of Congress or an action of the President.
Jean Rousseau The Social Contract (1762)	- Social Contract: While the concept of the Social Contract was first proposed by John Locke, the French thinker Rousseau further developed the concept in his work of the same name. Rousseau went further that Locke in defining and defending the ability of the people to replace the government by forcible action if necessary.	- It is clear that the American Revolution was a forcible, violent action taken by the colonists in reaction to the English violation of the social contract as defined by the writers of the Enlightenment. The French Revolution a short time later would be equally influenced by the writings of Rousseau and the example of the American Revolution.

Manifest Destiny

The Manifest Destiny philosophy grew out a young America's desire for territorial expansion in the first half of the 19th century (1800's). Americans believed (as the term implied) that it was the fate or destiny of the United States to grow from ocean to ocean, all that was needed was the will and desire to manifest or make happen the obvious. While the origins of the philosophy are unclear, the reasoning behind it is plain.

Laissez-Faire
As America began the process of industrialization in the 1800's an economic philosophy known as Laisse-Faire became the guiding principle of both government and industry. The core idea in Laisse-Faire is one of non-involvement by government in the workings of a nations economy. This is typified by a lack of regulation or interference in the capitalist marketplace, allowing businesses and industries to complete for consumers dollars based on the efficiency of their production and the quality of their products.

The roots of Laisse-Faire lay in the writings of English economist Adam Smith in his work The Wealth of Nations. In The Wealth of Nations, Smith hypothesized that no government regulation was necessary because the competition among businesses will insure that the best and most necessary products at ideal prices will be produced. This "self-regulating market" would, according to Smith, be guided by an "invisible hand".

During the late 1800's, as the US economy expanded at a furious rate the lack of government regulation over the economy led to many abuses by businesses, as a result by the Progressive Ear of the early 1900's the government was forced by public outcry to begin to enact consumer and worker protections via regulation.

Laisse-Faire Era Abuse(s)	Government Action or Regulation
Railroad monopoly abuse of farmers: ex. "short-haul" rates - charging farmers more to ship goods shorter distances	The Granger movement of the late 1800's helped enact passage of the Interstate Commerce Act, which created the ICC (Interstate Commerce Commission) to regulate railroad rates.
Monopolies, Pools, Trusts: ex. The Standard Oil Company of NJ, headed by John D. Rockefeller used its monopoly over 90% of refined oil to manipulate prices, drive smaller competitors out of business, and demand "rebates" from railroads for shipments of its oil.	In 1890 the Sherman Anti-Trust Act was passed, making it illegal for a company to be "in restraint of trade". The 1911 Clayton Antitrust Act was passed to further strengthen the government's ability to eliminate harmful monopolies. Several early monopolies which the government acted against include the 1904 "busting" of the Northern Securities Co., the 1905 prosecution of the Swift & Co. beef trust and most famously the 1911 break up of the Standard Oil Trust.
Abuse of workers: ex. working conditions of this era included long hours, poor pay, use of child labor, dangerous workplaces and little to no job security	Fueled by the growing popularity of Unions such as the Knights of Labor and the AFL (American Federation of Labor) the government responded to workers issues. In 1906 the Employers Liability Act was the first step towards disability insurance, and individual states such as New York and Oregon passed laws limiting working hours. The most notable shift in policy came during the 1902 Anthracite Coal Strike, in which President Theodore Roosevelt reversed the long standing trend of the government siding with business interests by backing the striking miners in the dispute.
Lack of Consumer Protection: Absent government regulations companies were free to produce products that were often ineffective or dangerous. ex. medicines that contained nothing more than alcohol or worse, dangerous and addictive drugs such as cocaine or morphine, were not uncommon.	In 1906 the government responded directly to the conditions of the meat packing industry exposed by Upton Sinclair's muckraking work *The Jungle* with passage of the Meat Inspection Act, requiring government oversight of the meat packing industry. Also in 1906 came the Pure Food and Drug Act, which limited ingredients and most notably required ingredients to be listed on food and drug packaging, allowing consumers a better idea of what they were ingesting.

Social Darwinism
Closely linked to the idea of Laissez-Faire economic theory was the philosophy of Social Darwinism. Social Darwinism was based upon the theory of Natural Selection in evolution that was put forth by Charles Darwin in his work The Origin of Species (1859). Darwin's ideas held that competition among a species for limited resources lead to a "survival of the fittest" under which only the best will survive and propagate.

Herbert Spencer (pictured at right) used Darwin's theories as the basis for Social Darwinism in his 1862 work First Principles, in which he applied natural selection to human society. Social Darwinism was used as justification for why some people succeeded, becoming very wealthy and successful and others remained poor and destitute, the most successful must be the "most fit" and justified by these natural laws. Economists also adapted these teachings as justification for Laisse-Faire economic policies, believing that success or failure in business was governed by these same natural laws and as such should not be interfered with by government regulation.

The philosophy of Social Darwinism was embraced by American society due

in part to the growth of the "American Dream" held by many Americans and recent immigrants, which was obtainable to anyone if he or she was simply willing to work hard to obtain success. These ideas were reinforced by popular novels such as the "rags-to-riches" stories of Horatio Alger jr.. Alger's novels such as Facing the World, Risen From the Ranks and Ragged Dick were widely read in the late 1800's and usually focused on a hero who rises from humble beginnings to great success by being honest, hardworking, thrifty and smart. While inspiring to many, the reality faced by millions of Americans and recent arrivals was a far cry from Alger's' ideals, even the hardest working found success illusive amid squalid city conditions and abusive work environments.