Regents Prep: Global History & Geography: Vocabulary

Global History Review

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Change & Turning Points Vocabulary List

95 Theses : Document written by Martin Luther detailing what he believed to be the problems in the medieval Church. absolute monarchy : A political system in which a country is ruled by a monarch, who has absolute control. Age of Exploration : Time period during the 15th and 16th centuries when Europeans searched for new sources of wealth and for easier trade routes to China and India. Resulted in the discovery of North and South America by the Europeans. Agrarian Revolution : A change in farming methods that allowed for a greater production of food. This revolution was fueled by the use of new farming technology such as the seed drill and improved fertilizers. The result of this revolution was a population explosion due to the higher availability of food. It was one of the causes of the Industrial Revolution. Allied Powers : Alliance of Great Britain, Soviet Union, United States, and France during World War II. American Revolution : Political revolution in the British North American Colonies starting in 1776 that removed the colonies from Great Britain’s control, and established an independent nation know as the United States of America. anatomy : The branch of science that studies the physical structure of living organisms. anti-Semitism : The hatred of people of Jewish descent. arch : A curved structure that shapes the edge of an open space, such as, a doorway, a window. Asian Tigers : Taiwan, Singapore, Hong Kong, and South Korea. These nations have experienced rapid economic growth and prosperity due to industrialization, and were aligned both politically, and economically with the West throughout the Cold War assassination : The killing of a political leader or other public figure. Axis Powers : Alliance of Germany, Italy, and Japan during World War II. Ayatollah Khomeini : (1900?-1989) Islamic religious leader who led a fundamentalist revolution in Iran in 1979. Ruled until 1989. Aztecs : A Mesoamerican civilization of Mexico who created a strong empire that flourished between the 14th and 15th century. The arrival of Hernando Cortez and the Spanish Conquistadores ended their empire. Blüt und Eisen : Blood and Iron policy of Prussian chancellor Otto von Bismarck to unify all of Germany under Prussian control and build and expand it into a great empire. Very successful. Bolshevik : Early name of communists during the Russian Revolution of 1917. Bonaparte, Napoleon : (1769-1821) Emperor of the French. Responsible for many French Revolution reforms as well as conquering most of Europe. He was defeated at Waterloo, and died several years later on the island of Saint Helena. bourgeoisie : Term given to the middle class people in society. bubonic plague : An infectious disease transmitted by fleas. It is characterized by fever, chills, and the formation of swellings. Also known as the Black Plague or Black Death. Cabinet System : Collection of people who run various departments in government. Usually report to the chief executive, such as the prime Minister, or the President. Calvin, John : (1509-1564) Theologian and church reformer who developed a form of Protestantism during the Reformation. His church is known for the idea of predestination, which states certain people are predestined for heaven. capital : Money that is used for investment. capitalism : An economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and distribution of goods. Also promotes a free market regulated by supply and demand. Catherine the Great : An enlightened despot who ruled over Russia. She is responsible for many positive changes in Russia, as well as securing the country a warm water port. Cavour, Camillo : (1810-61) Prime Minister of Sardinia, a large Italian State. He formed alliances with other foreign powers to help end Austria's and Spain's control. Instrumental in the unification of Italy. chancellor : Prime Minister, or chief executive of a country or nation state. Chinese Communist Revolution : A political revolution in China led by Mao Zedong. After several years of fighting the Kuomintang, the communists won control of the country in 1949. city-state : An independent state consisting of a city and its surrounding lands. civilization : A society that has a high level of culture and social organization including organized government, job specialization, and a organized belief system. Cold War : Non shooting conflict between the Soviet Union and their allies and the United States and their allies. Numerous secondary conflicts arise due to the Cold War. colonialism : The policy of maintaining colonies as a source of raw materials and new markets. Practiced during old and new imperialism. colonization : A group of people moving from their homeland to a new area in large numbers. Columbian Exchange : The exchange of goods and other things, such as disease from the Old World (Europe) to the new World (North and South America) and back. Command Economy : An economic system controlled by strong, centralized government, which usually focuses on industrial goods. With little attention paid to agriculture and consumer goods. Commercial Revolution : A dramatic change in the economy of Europe at the end of the Middle Ages. It is characterized by an increase in towns and trade, the use of banks and credit, and the establishment of guilds to regulate quality and price. communism : A system of government in which a single, totalitarian, party holds power. It is characterized by state control of the economy, and restriction on personal freedoms. It was first proposed by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels in The Communist Manifesto. Communist Manifesto, The : A book written by Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that describes the new political system of scientific socialism, which becomes the basis for communism. The book states that all of human history is based on the conflict between the bourgeoisie (those who own the means of production) and the proletariat (working class), and predicted that the proletariat would rise up in a violent revolution to overthrow the bourgeoisie and create a society with an equal distribution of goods and services. Communist Revolution : A political revolution in Russia beginning in 1917. The Bolsheviks, now known as Communists, overthrew Czar Nicholas II and created a socialist government based upon the writings of Karl Marx and Vladimir Lenin. Also know as the Bolshevik Revolution. constitution : A document detailing the fundamental laws of a country or organization. constitutional monarchy : A political system in which a country is ruled by a monarch who has limited power due to a constitution Copernicus, Nicolaus : (1473-1543) Polish astronomer who wrote On the Revolutions of the Celestial Spheres. Theorized that the Earth orbited the Sun (heliocentric system) and laid the foundations of modern astronomy. corporation : A company with business dealings in many different areas. Counter-Reformation : The movement initiated by the Catholic Church to contain the Protestant Reformation and, if possible, end it. craftsman : A person who makes quality, practical or decorative goods. Crusades : European Christian military expeditions made between the 11th and 13th centuries to retake the Middle Eastern Holy Lands occupied by the Muslims. cultural diffusion : The spreading of ideas through contact such as trade or war. culture : The shared beliefs, customs, practices, and social behavior of a particular nation or people Czar : Title of the ruler of Russia. Taken from the word Caesar, which means emperor. Czar Nicholas II : (1868-1918) Czar of Russia (1894-1917). He was overthrown during the Russian Revolution of 1917. Later, he and his family were killed by the revolution’s leadership. Da Gama, Vasco : (1469?-1524) Portuguese explorer who, in 1498, established an all water route to India daimyo : Land owning feudal lords in Japan. democracy : A system of government in which the citizens hold the legislative, judicial, and executive power, based on majority rule. democratic republic : A political system in which a country is ruled by law, has representative government, and is democratic in nature. Descartes, Rene : (1596-1650) French intellectual who challenged traditional ideas. He said that human reason was capable of discovering and explaining the laws of nature and man. The idea of human reason being superior to tradition led to the beginning of the Enlightenment, a time of political awakening that became revolution. diaspora : The enforced spreading out of a group of people. In history, there has been both a Jewish Diaspora and an African Diaspora. dictatorship : A system of government in which a country is ruled by a single person with absolute power. domesticate : To tame an animal to live with, or close to humans. emperor : Political ruler of a country of nation. Similar to a king. Enclosure Movement : During the Industrial Revolution, it was the consolidation of many small farms into one large farm, which created a labor force as many people lost their homes. Enlightenment : A movement in the 18th century that stressed the importance of reason and science in philosophy and the study of human society. Occurred in Western Europe. ethnic cleansing : The removal of people of a specific ethnic group by means of genocide, terror, or forced expulsion. ethnic group : A group of people that shares distinctive cultural traits. European Community/European Union : Economic union between countries in Europe for mutual gain. Originally formed in 1951 as the European Coal and Steel Community (ECSC), it later became the European Community in 1967, then the European Union in 1991. evolution : The gradual change or development of something. excommunicate : To exclude a Christian from receiving the Sacraments. factory : A central location where goods are manufactured on a large scale. fascism : A system of government that promotes extreme nationalism, repression, anticommunism, and is ruled by a dictator. fertilizers : A substance spread onto soil to increase its ability to support crops. Fertilizers include organic materials, such as manure, but can also be man made chemicals such as nitrates. Feudalism : A social, political, and economic system that dominated all aspects of medieval European life. foreign policy : A nation’s actions regarding how they treat other nations. fraternity : A group or society formed by people who share common interests. French Indochina : Area of southeast Asia controlled by France during Imperialism. Includes Cambodia, Laos, and Vietnam. French Revolution : Political revolution in France starting in 1789 that brought about many changes in France. The revolution ultimately ended with a dictatorship under Napoleon Bonaparte before his defeat by the combined powers of Europe. fundamental : Affecting the underlying principles or structure of something. Galilei, Galileo : (1564-1642) Italian astronomer. One of the founders of Europe's scientific revolution, one of his main contributions is the application of the telescope to astronomy. He was able to prove Copernicus’ heliocentric model correct. Gandhi, Mohandas : (1869-1948) Nationalist leader in India, who called for a non violent revolution to gain his country’s freedom from the British Empire. Garibaldi, Guiseppe : (1807-1882?) Military leader whose Red Shirt army liberated most of southern Italy, before conquering the northern section. He was instrumental in the unification of Italy. Glorious Revolution : Political revolution in Great Britain in 1688 that put William and Mary on the throne, while limiting the power of the monarchy and making Parliament supreme. This event marks the beginning of a constitutional monarchy in England. government : a person or body of people who have the power to make and enforce laws for a country or area. Great Depression : (1929-1939) The dramatic decline in the world’s economy due to the United State’s stock market crash of 1929, the overproduction of goods from World War I, and decline in the need for raw materials from non industrialized nations. Results in millions of people losing their jobs as banks and businesses closed around the world. Many people were reduced to homelessness, and had to rely on government sponsored soup kitchens to eat. World trade also declined as many countries imposed protective tariffs in an attempt to restore their economies. guild : An association of merchants or craftspeople in medieval Europe, formed to make regulations and set standards for a particular trade or craft. heliocentric model : Theory of the universe that states the sun is the center, and that the earth revolves around it. Herzl, Theodor : (1860-1904) Leader of Zionist movement to establish a Jewish homeland in Palestine. hijacking : The taking control of a public transport vehicle, such as an airliner or train to use the people aboard as hostages. Hitler, Adolf : (1889-1945) Austrian-born leader of Germany. He co-founded the Nazi Party in Germany, and gained control of the country as chancellor in 1933. Hitler started World War II with the invasion of Poland. He was responsible for the Holocaust. Hobbes, Thomas : (1588-1679) English philosopher and political theorist. Wrote Leviathan, where he favored an absolute government as the only means of balancing human interests and desires with their rights of life and property. human rights : The rights that are considered by most societies to belong automatically to all people, including the rights to justice, freedom, and equality. hunting and gathering : System of food production for prehistoric peoples. Involves hunting animals and gathering foods grown in the wild. Imperialism : The complete control of a weaker nation’s social, economic, and political life by a stronger nation. Inca : A Mesoamerican civilization of South America, centered in Peru. The Inca ruled a large empire and had many cultural and scientific achievements including an elaborate road system, architecture, and terrace farming. The arrival of the Spanish Conquistadores ended their empire in the 15th century. Indian National Congress : Nationalistic organization in India with the purpose of ending British control. Prominent members include Mohandas Gandhi and Jawaharlal Nehru. Indian Nationalist Movement : Nationalist movement to end British control of India. individualism : A social philosophy which stresses the importance of the individual above society. indulgence : Letters of forgiveness for one's sins provided by the medieval Church, and one of the causes of the Reformation. Industrial Revolution : In the second half of the 19th century, it was the fundamental change in the way goods were produced through the use of machines, capital, and the centralization of work forces in factories. It completely altered the social, economic, and political structure of most of Europe, Japan, and the United States. industrialization : The change to industrial methods of production such as the use of factories. interdependence : Mutual assistance or reliance between two or more parties. invasion : The entry of forces into a territory through hostile means. irrigation : A system to bring water to support crops. Islamic fundamentalists : Muslims who believe the Quran to be a literal guide to political, social, and religious life. Israeli - Palestinian Conflict : Conflict over landownership in Israel/Palestine. This conflict has at times involved most of the nations of the Middle East as well as the United States and the Soviet Union. Widespread terrorism against Israel and its allies occurs because of this conflict. Jiang Jieshi : (1887-1975) Leader of the Guomindang, or Nationalist Party in China. Fought to keep China from becoming communist, and to resist the Japanese during World War II. He lost control of China in 1949, and fled to Taiwan where he setup a rival government. Also known as Chang Kai Shek. joint stock company : A company that sells shares to investors who share in the profits and losses. Kaiser Wilhelm : (1859-1941) King of Prussia and Emperor of Germany whose political policies led his country into World War I. He was forced from power when Germany lost the war. Kuomintang : Nationalist Party in China led by Jiang Jieshi, which began a war against the Communist Party led by Mao Zedong. Both fought for control of China, with Mao and the Communists ultimately winning in 1949. Laissez-Faire Economics : This was an economic philosophy begun by Adam Smith in his book, Wealth of Nations, that stated that business and the economy would run best with no interference from the government. This economic system dominated most of the Industrial Revolution. Latin America : The Geopolitical designation for Central and South America and the Caribbean Islands which were settled by the Spanish. Latin American Revolutions : Political revolutions in various Latin American countries beginning in the late 18th century. These revolutions were aimed at overthrowing the European powers that controlled these nations. Many were successful, but few achieved the success of the American Revolution. League of Nations : A multinational peace keeping organization which began as an idea of United States President Woodrow Wilson following the first World War. The Treaty of Versailles created a League with over 40 different countries joining. The United States was not one of them. The League of Nations was to be an international body that would settle future problems through negotiations instead of warfare. The member nations were to work cooperatively through economic and military means to enforce its decisions. However, since the United States did not join, the League never achieved its intentions. While the League did attempt to halt the aggressiveness of Hitler's Germany, their inherent weakness prevented them from stopping World War II. legislative : Relating to a system that makes laws. liberty : In the political sense, this usually means freedom. Locke, John : (1632-1704) English philosopher and political theorist. He wrote Two Treaties on Government which explained that all men have Natural Rights, which are Life, Liberty, and Property, and that the purpose of government was to protect these rights. Long Parliament : (1640 – 1660) English Parliament which met off and on for twenty years due to religious and civil problems. Occurs during the English Civil War. Loyola, Ignatius : (1491-1556) Founded the Society of Jesus, the Order of the Jesuits. He worked to combat the Protestant Reformation by providing strong Catholic leadership to monarchs across Europe. Luther, Martin : (1483-1546) Theologian and religious reformer who started the Reformation with his 95 Theses which protested church corruption, namely the sale of indulgences. Magna Carta : A document granting rights to both the Church in England and the Nobility signed by King John in 1215. This is considered to be the beginnings of British democracy. Mansa Musa : Emperor of the kingdom of Mali in Africa. He made a famous pilgrimage to Mecca and established trade routes to the Middle East. Mao Zedong : (1893-1976) Leader of the Communist Party in China that overthrew Jiang Jieshi and the Nationalists. Established China as the People’s Republic of China and ruled from 1949 until 1976. market economy : An economy based on free trade and supply and demand. Marx, Karl : (1818-1883), German political philosopher and writer. Coauthor with Friedrich Engels of The Communist Manifesto which described the new philosophy of scientific socialism, which is the basis for modern communism. mass production : The manufacturing of products on a large scale, usually through the use of machines. Mazzini, Guiseppe : (1805-1872), Nationalistic leader in Italy, who started a group called Young Italy in 1831. Young Italy was a nationalistic movement that wanted to end foreign control of Italy. Meiji : (1852-1912) Emperor of Japan from 1867 to 1912. He was responsible for the end of the Tokugawa Shogunate and the rapid modernization and industrialization of Japan. Meiji Restoration : The restoration of the Emperor Meiji to power in Japan, overthrowing the Tokugawa Shogunate in 1868. merchant : A person who sells goods or services. A member of the middle class in most societies. middle class : Social and economic class usually composed of merchants, artisans, and business people. In some societies, the richest class, but without a title of nobility. The middle class is usually the backbone of society as they are generally more moderate in their economic, social, and political habits. Middle East : Geo-Political designation of the area stretching from the eastern Mediterranean Sea to the western side of the Indian subcontinent. Consists of countries such as Israel, Iran, Iraq, Saudi Arabia, and Egypt. military : The armed forces of a nation. missionary : A person who spreads the teachings of a religion. Model Parliament : (1295) English Parliament where bishops and abbots, peers, two knights from each shire, and two representatives from each town all met in modern format for the first time. modernization : To change something to make it conform to modern standards monarchy : A political system in which a country is ruled by a monarch. Muslim League : Nationalist movement in India by the Islamic population who did not feel represented by the Indian National Congress. They initially formed to protexct Muslim rights, but later called for an independent state. Mussolini, Benito : (1883-1945) Italian leader. He founded the Italian Fascist Party, and sided with Hitler and Germany in World War II. In 1945 he was overthrown and assassinated by the Italian Resistance. NAFTA : North American Free Trade Agreement, an economic treaty between Canada, the United States, and Mexico to lower tariffs and create a free trade environment. NAFTA was ratified by its member nations in 1994. National Assembly : First new government during the first stage of the French Revolution. NATO : North Atlantic Treaty Organization, an international defense alliance between the United States, Great Britain, and others formed in 1949 as a response to the spread of communism. navigable rivers : A river that is able to be navigated by boat. Neolithic Age : (10,000 BCE - 5000 BCE) New Stone Age. A period of time in human history characterized by the development of agriculture and permanent settlements. Neolithic Revolution : (10,000 - 8,000 BCE) The development of agriculture and the domestication of animals as a food source. This led to the development of permanent settlements and the start of civilization. New Economic Policy : An economic policy of Vladimir Lenin’s in the Soviet Union where government controlled most banks and industry, but did allow some private ownership. Newton, Isaac : (1642-1727) English scientist who discovered gravitation, invented calculus, and formulated the laws of motion. nuclear weapons : Weapons in which the explosive potential is controlled by nuclear fission or fusion. occupation (military) : The control of one country by another through the stationing of military troops and military government. Old Imperialism : A European policy of conquest that occurs in the 15th through 18th centuries in Africa, India, the Americas, and parts of Asia The motives were the same for most areas, the establishment of lucrative trade routes. Various European countries dominated these trades routes and one time or another, and a some countries, such as Great Britain and Spain, came to dominate entire countries. OPEC : Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries, an international organization concerned with the crude-oil policies of its member states. This organization was founded in 1960, and has 11 members, including Kuwait, Algeria, Iran, Iraq, Indonesia, Libya, Nigeria, Qatar, Saudi Arabia, United Arab Emirates, and Venezuela. Due to their control of most of the world’s oil supply, OPEC has a strong influence on many industrialized nations. Osama bin Laden : (1957- ) Saudi Arabian multimillionaire and leader of the terrorist organization al-Qaeda. He is responsible for numerous terrorist attacks on the United States including the destruction of the World Trade Center. Ottoman Empire : Hereditary nation state centered in Turkey. It was founded in the late 13th century after the collapse of the Byzantine Empire and extended across most of Asia Minor and the Middle East. The Ottoman Empire collapsed shortly after World War II. Pacific Rim : The countries that border the Pacific Ocean, specifically, the countries of East Asia, considered as an economic unit. Pahlavi, Muhammad Reza : (1919-1980), Dictator ruler of Iran from 1941 to 1979. He was supported by the United States throughout most of the Cold War due to his anti communist stance. Overthrown during the Iranian Revolution in 1979. Paleolithic Age : (750,000 BCE - 10,000 B.C.E.) Old Stone Age. A period of time in human history characterized by the use of stone tools and the use of hunting and gathering as a food source. Pan Africanism : Nationalistic movement which emphasized the unity of all Africans, and sought to end foreign control. Pan Slavism : Nationalistic movement which emphasized the unity of all Slavic peoples, and sought to end foreign control of various Slavic nations. parliament : A government's legislative body. partnership : The cooperative relationship between two or more people who are involved in the same activity. philosophy : A system of thought devoted to the examination of ideas such as truth, existence, reality, causality, religion, and freedom political ideologies : An organized system of political beliefs, values, and ideas. political rights : Rights such as voting, and the ability to hold public office. Pope : Leader of the Roman Catholic Church. Chosen by the College of Cardinals. predestination : The idea of Calvinist Protestants that certain people were pre-selected to go to heaven. priest : A spiritual leader in a variety of religions. Prince Metternich : (1773-1859) Chancellor of the Astro-Hungarian Empire between 1821 and 1848. He was the most powerful political figure in Europe between 1814 and 1848. He was driven from power in the Revolutions of 1848. proletariat : Term given to the working class people in society. property : Something of value that is owned by a person. Protestant : Member of Christian relgious sect which formed during the Protestant Reformation. Protestants reject the authority of the Roman Catholic Church. provisional government : A temporary government assembled during times of change. Prussia : Former independent kingdom and state of Germany. In the late 19th century, it formed the central state of the German Empire, which was one of the largest in Europe. Put Out System : Manufacturing system where work was distributed and retrieved from individuals in their homes. raw materials : Various materials found in nature used in manufacturing such as wood, coal, and oil. recant : To reject a belief or withdraw something previously said. religion : A person's beliefs concerning the existence and worship of a god or gods, and divine involvement in the universe and human life. Renaissance : A rebirth of cultural and intellectual pursuits after the stagnation of the Middle Ages. This period in European history, from about the 14th through 16th centuries, features major cultural and artistic change. republic : A political system in which a country is ruled by law, has representative government, and is democratic in nature. revolution : a dramatic change in ideas, practice, or government. rigid social class system : A social class system where there is no mobility. A person remains in the same class their entire life. river valley : A valley that is carved out by the river. Often have fertile land, and are the sites for the earliest civilizations. Roman Empire : The territories ruled by ancient Rome which at one time encompassed most of the Mediterranean world and parts of France, England, and Germany. The empire lasted from 27 BCE to 395 CE. Rousseau, Jean Jacques : (1712-1778) French writer and Enlightenment philosopher who wrote a book called, The Social Contract, where he stated that people were basically good, and that society, and its unequal distribution of wealth, were the cause of most problems. Rousseau believed that government should be run according to the will of the majority, which he called the General Will. He claimed that the General Will would always act in the best interest of the people. Sahara Desert : The world’s largest desert, located in North Africa. samurai : Warrior class during Japan’s feudal age. scholar : A person who posesses a great deal of knowledge, usually an academic who specializes in a particular subject area. Scientific Method : Uses observation and experimentation to explain theories on the workings of the universe. Scientific Revolution : An offshoot of the Renaissance in which scientists questioned traditional beliefs about the workings of the universe. One of the main ideas to come out of the Scientific Revolution was the use of the Scientific Method. The Scientific Method uses observation and experimentation to explain theories on how the universe works. seed drill : Machine designed by Jethro Tull which mechanically planted seeds. self-determination : Refers to a number of distinct human rights. These include the right to equality under the law, the right to a nationality, the right to freely leave and return to a person's country of origin, the right to freedom from persecution because of race, religion, or gender, and a host of others. slavery : A system of forced labor. Slavic : Ethnic group of indo-European descent which includes Russians, Bulgarians, and Poles. smallpox : A highly contagious disease. Symptoms include high fever and scar-producing blisters. It can be fatal. Smith, Adam : (1723-1790) British philosopher, writer, and economist. His book, The Wealth of Nations, describes his theory on free trade, otherwise known as laissez-faire economics. social class : A group of people within a society who share the same social, political, and economic status. social contract : Theory of Thomas Hobbes that states the people form a social contract with government where they give up all rights for protection from other citizens. Society of Jesus : Roman Catholic religious order founded by Ignatius Loyola in 1540 to setup schools and serve as missionaries, spreading church teachings. Soviet Union (U.S.S.R.) : Union of Soviet Socialist Republics (USSR) Formed in 1922 from most of the former Russian Empire. The Soviet Union was controlled by the Communist Party headquarter in Moscow, Russia. The Soviet Union was a world superpower along with the United States, and was one of the two major antagonist during the Cold War. Spirit of the Laws, The : A book written by Baron de Montesquieu describing his theories on government. He states that government should divide itself according to its powers, creating a Judicial, Legislative, and Executive branch. Montesquieu explained that under this system each branch would Check and Balance the others, which would help protect the people's liberty. superpowers : Term given to the United States and the Soviet Union during the Cold War. tariff : A tax on imports. technology : A society's practical knowledge, especially with reference to its material culture and modes of production. terrorism : The use of violence for political purpose. Tokugawa Shogunate : (1603-1867) Feudal Warlord rulers of Japan. Responisble for closing Japan off from the rest of the world. Overthrown during the Meiji Restoration. trade : The exchange of goods or service between people. tradition : A long-established custom or belief. Treaty of Versailles : Treaty ending World War I. It was extremely unfair to Germany, forcing them to accept all of the blame for the war. It is a major cause of World War II. tribalism : Feelings of loyalty to individual tribes, and the cause of much war and strife in modern Africa. United Nations : An international body composed of many countries that seeks to promote peace, prosperity, and cooperation around the world. It was formed in 1945 at the end of World War II. United States Constitution : Document creating the United States government. Based on Enlightenment ideas. Ratified in 1788. urbanization : The movement of people to urban areas in search of work. Victor Emmanuel : (1820-78) He was king of Sardinia from 1849 to 1861, when he became king of a united Italy until his death in 1878. His support of the unification movement was vital to its success. volence : The use of force to injure someone or to damage something. von Bismarck, Otto : (1815-1898) Appointed Prussian chancellor in 1862. he began a program of war to unify all the German states under the control of Prussia. His policy was known as Blüt und Eisen or Blood and Iron. He was the most powerful statesman in Europe as chancellor of the new German Empire from 1871 to 1890. He was known as the Iron Chancellor. Walpole, Robert : (1676-1745) British statesman, and first Prime Minister from 1721 to 1742. Warsaw Pact : An international defense alliance between the Soviet Union and many of its Eastern European satellite states as a response to NATO. Formed in 1955. Wealth of Nations : British philosopher and writer Adam Smith‘s 1776 book that described his theory on free trade, otherwise known as laissez-faire economics. westernization : To adopt western ideas and culture. working class : Lowest class in most social class systems, including factory workers, miners, and others. World War I : (1914 – 1918) European war in which an alliance including Great Britain, France, Russia, Italy, and the United States defeated the alliance of Germany, Austria-Hungary, Turkey, and Bulgaria. World War II : (1939 – 1945) A war fought in Europe, Africa and Asia between the Allied Powers of Great Britain, France, the Soviet Union, and the United States against the Axis Powers of Germany, Italy, and Japan. Young Italy : Nationalistic movement that wanted to end foreign control of Italy. Started in 1831 by Guiseppe Mazzini. Zionism : Jewish nationalist movement to establish a homeland in Palestine. This movement began in the late 1800s, as anti-Semitic feelings intensified in Europe. The main leader of this movement was a journalist by the name of Theodor Herzl. Herzl's dream of a homeland for Jewish peoples was realized in 1948 with the creation of Israel. Zollverein : A trade union among other German states formed by Prussia in the 1930s.